aquifolium – comes from the Latin words acus meaning ‘needle’ + folium meaning ‘leaf’ in reference to the spiny leaves

Native range: Europe, northern Africa, western Asia

Leaves:

• alternate
• simple
• undulate margin
• variable spines
• older leaves entire
• 1–3” long
• short petiole
• leathery & shiny

Flowers:

• dioecious
• small inflorescence
• radial
• 4-parted
• white
• fragrant

Fruit:

• drupe
• fleshy
• bright red
• globose (ball-shaped)
• usually persistent

Other characteristics:

• tree to 50 ft.
• evergreen
• forms dense pyramid or round head

Ecology & Adaptations:

• introduced west of the Cascades in Washington
• British Columbia south to California
• Ontario province
• invasive in PNW forests
• dispersal by birds allows this species to reach inner portions of urban forests, where it outcompetes native understory species, and vegetative reproduction makes removal difficult
• pollinated by bees, so female trees must grow within bee range (100 feet or so) of a male to be pollinated
• seed dispersal:
  • birds eat fruit and disperse seeds
  • holly trees thus make their way even to gaps in mature forests
• vegetative reproduction:
  • layering
  • suckers from roots
  • cut/felled trees re-sprout from root crown
• herbivore/pathogen defense:
  • spines on leaves
  • berries contain compounds that are toxic to some animals (including humans)
  • waxy coating prevents infestation by bacteria and fungi
• control:
  • small plants can be pulled or dug up when soil is moist
  • cutting at the base of the trunk results in re-sprouting, but follow-up treatment can suppress growth
  • applying herbicide to cut stump (not thick, waxy leaves) is most effective